H�\��j�0��z�96��]J�'�P��H��P�Fv~�j����ps��Ί(���~Z��oF��z�f�+�"�!���iv<=���9���Wx�*� �m�G;CE[��_�!Xö���n^�>���s���=��F�k�E�U@~��h�? 0000075088 00000 n 4. 0000039103 00000 n 0000042399 00000 n 0000084664 00000 n In rare cases, a genetic mutation can disrupt cartilage development, and therefore the development of bone. The larger surface area of cancellous bones is associated with a higher remodelling rate than cortical bone (Bartl and Bartl, 2017), which means osteoporosis is more evident in bones with a high proportion of cancellous bone, such as the head/neck of femur or vertebral bones (Robson and Syndercombe Court, 2018). <>>> The remodelling process is achieved through the balanced activity of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. 0000041692 00000 n The osteoclast cell membrane has numerous folds that face the surface of the bone and osteoclasts break down bone tissue by secreting lysosomal enzymes and acids into the space between the ruffled membrane (Robson and Syndercombe Court, 2018). endstream As the main reservoirs for minerals in the body, bones contain approximately 99% of the body’s calcium, 85% of its phosphate and 50% of its magnesium (Bartl and Bartl, 2017). Your IP: 157.245.75.21 It also contains Volkmann’s canals, small channels running perpendicular to the diaphysis of the bone (Fig 1); these convey blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves from the periosteal surface through to the intracortical layer. Tendons and ligaments attach to the outer layer of the periosteum, whereas the inner layer contains osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) and osteoclasts (bone-resorbing cells) responsible for bone remodelling. Long, short and irregular bones develop from an initial model of hyaline cartilage (cartilage models). If bone is built without the appropriate balance of osteocytes, it results in abnormally thick bone or bony spurs. x�U�Mk�@����c��f��5D�d+�l�P�� �9����C7bh�\�y?�A��|^4զ�,X��u;E����$#"zoUQN� . J J J ) ) ) ) ) ) {The Axial Skeleton. Calcium plays a significant role in the body and is required for muscle contraction, nerve conduction, cell division and blood coagulation. Through the process of endochondral ossification, the cells in this zone become ossified and form part of the ‘new diaphysis’ (Tortora and Derrickson, 2009). Skull bones, auditory ossicles (ear bones), hyoid bone, ribs, sternum (breastbone), and bones of the vertebral column • The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs (extremities) and the bones forming the girdles that connect the limbs to the axial skeleton. Axial Skeleton. Nursing staff were already under pressure but Covid-19 has obviously taken this…, Please remember that the submission of any material is governed by our, EMAP Publishing Limited Company number 7880758 (England & Wales) Registered address: 7th Floor, Vantage London, Great West Road, Brentford, United Kingdom, TW8 9AG, We use cookies to personalize and improve your experience on our site. 0000046501 00000 n As the chondrocytes in the proliferation zone stop dividing, the growth plate thins and eventually calcifies, and longitudinal bone growth stops (Ralston and McInnes, 2014). Also known as spongy bone, cancellous bone is found in the outer cortical layer. 0000036051 00000 n This can result in reduced growth and short stature and is known as achondroplasia. 0000045342 00000 n The term intra-membranous ossification describes the direct conversion of mesenchyme structures to bone, in which the fibrous tissues become ossified as the mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into osteoblasts. There are two parts to the skeleton: As well as contributing to the body’s overall shape, the skeletal system has several key functions, including: Bones are a site of attachment for ligaments and tendons, providing a skeletal framework that can produce movement through the coordinated use of levers, muscles, tendons and ligaments. 0000118049 00000 n Axial skeleton - Skull (29) It is the skeleton of the head. 0000043679 00000 n Serum calcium levels are tightly regulated by two hormones, which work antagonistically to maintain homoeostasis. The human growth hormone (somatotropin) is the main stimulus for growth at the epiphyseal growth plates. As the body ages, bone may lose some of its strength and elasticity, making it more susceptible to fracture. This flexibility and tensile strength of bone is derived from the collagen fibres. As only 1% of the body’s calcium is in the blood, the skeleton acts as storage facility, releasing calcium in response to the body’s demands. Box 2. 0000004871 00000 n The Axial Skeleton Review Sheet 10 155 The Skull 1. This article, the first in a two-part series on the structure and function of the skeletal system, reviews the anatomy and physiology of bone. 0000035566 00000 n Trabeculae are characteristically oriented along the lines of stress to help resist forces and reduce the risk of fracture (Tortora and Derrickson, 2009). 59 87 0000118697 00000 n endobj <>/ExtGState<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB/ImageC/ImageI] >>/MediaBox[ 0 0 720 540] /Contents 4 0 R/Group<>/Tabs/S/StructParents 0>> 0000077844 00000 n Key nutritional requirements for bone health include minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, as well as smaller qualities of fluoride, manganese, and iron (Robson and Syndercombe Court, 2018).

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